Observation: The Tughlaq empire (shaded area) covered almost the entire subcontinent at its peak. In contrast, the Lodi empire (later period) had shrunk back to North India.
Regional Powers: Notice the large territories of the Eastern Gangas (Odisha) and Hoysalas (South), showing that the Sultanate never fully controlled the periphery.
2. Fig 2.12: The Deccan and Vijayanagara
Buffer Zones: The Raichur Doab (land between rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra) was a constant bone of contention between Vijayanagara and the Bahmani/Deccan Sultanates.
Fragmented North: The Bahmani kingdom split into five smaller pieces (Bijapur, Golconda, etc.), while Vijayanagara remained a massive unified block in the South until 1565.
3. Fig 2.16: Mughal Expansion
Akbar (Green): Controlled North and Central India firmly.
Aurangzeb (Stripes): Pushed the boundaries deep south.
The Difference: Aurangzeb’s expansion into the deep south made the empire too big to manage from Delhi, stretching supply lines and communication, leading to its eventual collapse.
